Manuel Acuña Roxas holds a unique place in Philippine history. As the last President of the Commonwealth and the first President of the independent Third Republic, he bridged two eras: the Philippines under American tutelage and the country’s first uncertain steps toward full sovereignty. His term was brief, dramatic, and filled with contradictions—marked by both grand visions and deep controversies.
Roxas was a brilliant statesman and orator, admired for his intelligence and charisma. Yet his presidency was also mired in challenges: economic devastation after World War II, political unrest, questions of loyalty during the Japanese occupation, and a society struggling to redefine itself in a post-colonial world.
Early Life and Education
Manuel Roxas was born on January 1, 1892, in Capiz (now Roxas City), in the province of Capiz. Orphaned at a young age, he was raised by his maternal grandparents. Despite hardships, Roxas excelled in school and earned a Bachelor of Laws degree from the University of the Philippines in 1913. He topped the bar exams that same year, launching a legal career that would quickly evolve into a life of public service.
Early on, Roxas showed promise as a leader. He became Capiz governor in 1919, then was elected to the Philippine House of Representatives, where he would eventually rise to the powerful position of Speaker.
Rising Star in Politics
Roxas was part of the political generation shaped by the American colonial period—eager to prove the capacity of Filipinos for self-rule. He was a close ally of Manuel L. Quezon and later, Sergio Osmeña, with whom he would have a complex relationship. In the 1934 Constitutional Convention, Roxas served as one of its key members, helping craft the 1935 Constitution of the Commonwealth.
When the Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated in 1935, Roxas became a member of the National Assembly, eventually serving as Speaker of the House and later Secretary of Finance under Quezon.
His sharp intellect, mastery of legal matters, and eloquence in debate earned him national prominence. At the height of his political career, many considered Roxas a future president—even before the war would dramatically reshape his path.
The War Years and Controversy
World War II complicated Roxas’s political narrative. During the Japanese occupation, Roxas initially joined the resistance in the Visayas but was later captured and brought to Manila. There, under pressure from the Japanese, he served in limited capacities within the occupation government—sparking allegations of collaboration.
After the war, Roxas was arrested by U.S. authorities along with other officials suspected of aiding the Japanese. However, then-General Douglas MacArthur—who had a close relationship with Roxas—intervened, clearing him of charges and describing him as “a loyal Filipino.”
This move was controversial. Critics argued that Roxas had compromised national integrity by cooperating with the enemy, while supporters claimed he did so to protect civilians and maintain a semblance of governance during chaos.
Regardless, the episode did not derail his political ascent. With the country rebuilding and seeking stability, many Filipinos welcomed familiar, experienced leadership—and Roxas fit the bill.
The 1946 Presidential Election
In the first presidential election after the war, Roxas broke away from the Nacionalista Party—the dominant political party at the time—and founded the Liberal Party. He ran against Sergio Osmeña, then the sitting president who had served during the war.
Roxas ran on a platform of reconstruction, independence, and modernization, portraying himself as a dynamic leader for a new era. He promised economic revival, close U.S.-Philippine ties, and a stronger democracy.
In the April 1946 elections, he defeated Osmeña by a significant margin and was inaugurated as the last president of the Commonwealth on May 28, 1946. Just a few months later, on July 4, 1946, the United States formally granted the Philippines full independence, and Roxas became the first president of the Third Republic.
The First President of an Independent Nation
Roxas assumed office at a time of enormous upheaval. Manila and other major cities were in ruins. Millions of Filipinos were displaced, impoverished, and disillusioned. Infrastructure, agriculture, and industry had been decimated by war.
His priorities were clear:
- Rebuild the economy
- Secure U.S. aid
- Establish political stability
- Negotiate post-war agreements with the United States
One of the most consequential policies during his administration was the passage of the Bell Trade Act, which gave the Philippines access to $800 million in American war rehabilitation funds but came with conditions. These included parity rights, allowing American citizens and corporations the same economic privileges as Filipinos.
Roxas lobbied strongly for the act, claiming it was necessary for rebuilding. However, many nationalists criticized it as a new form of economic dependence, arguing it compromised the very sovereignty independence was supposed to provide.
Domestic Challenges and Unrest
While Roxas worked to normalize relations with the U.S. and revive the economy, he also faced significant domestic problems:
- The Hukbalahap Rebellion: Originally a guerrilla group that fought the Japanese, the Huks began a rebellion against the new government, demanding land reform and better conditions for peasants. Roxas responded with military action, labeling them communists and traitors. This marked the beginning of an insurgency that would last for decades.
- Political Violence and Intimidation: The post-war elections were marred by reports of electoral fraud, violence, and intimidation, particularly targeting the opposition. The fragile democracy Roxas aimed to build often stumbled in its execution.
- Corruption Allegations: His administration faced criticism for favoritism, nepotism, and questionable business deals, especially in the allocation of U.S. rehabilitation funds. While Roxas himself was not proven guilty of personal corruption, many felt his government lacked transparency.
Despite these issues, his administration laid the structural foundations of the republic, including the reestablishment of national institutions, the passage of key legislation, and efforts to stabilize the currency and banking system.
A Sudden End
On April 15, 1948, after delivering a speech before the United States Armed Forces in the Philippines (USAFIP) at Clark Air Base in Pampanga, President Roxas collapsed from a heart attack. He died shortly afterward, at the age of 56.
His untimely death shocked the nation. He was succeeded by his Vice President, Elpidio Quirino.
Legacy: A Nation in Transition
Roxas’s legacy is a study in contrasts. On one hand, he is remembered as a visionary leader who helped rebuild a shattered country and ushered in independence. On the other, critics point to his compromises with foreign powers and his hardline stance against dissent.
He was undeniably a man of great intelligence, political ambition, and oratorical brilliance. He could charm American senators in Washington just as easily as he could deliver thunderous speeches to Filipino crowds. His commitment to modernization and his vision of a Philippines aligned with the U.S. set the tone for decades of foreign policy.
Today, Roxas Boulevard, Roxas City, and various institutions bear his name. His image graced the 100-peso bill for many years, a reminder of his role in a pivotal era of Philippine history.
Conclusion
Manuel Roxas led the Philippines at a time when it was both free and fragile—newly independent, yet deeply reliant; sovereign, yet not fully in control of its economic destiny. His leadership was shaped by the urgency of post-war recovery and the complexity of international diplomacy.
His short but impactful presidency laid the groundwork for the modern Philippine state, even as it exposed the growing pains of a young republic.In the final analysis, Roxas was not a perfect leader, but a pragmatic realist who sought to balance idealism with necessity. His story is that of a country learning to walk on its own, with all the stumbles and hopes that come with it.
