Emilio Aguinaldo is a central figure in Philippine history, best known as the country’s first president and a leading figure in the struggle for independence against Spanish and American colonial rule. His legacy is complex—marked by revolutionary achievements, political ambition, and lingering controversy. As a military leader and politician, Aguinaldo played a pivotal role in shaping the early nationalist movement, but his decisions also led to debates that persist to this day.
Early Life and Background
Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy was born on March 22, 1869, in Cavite El Viejo (now Kawit), Cavite, to a well-off family of Chinese and Tagalog descent. His family’s relatively privileged status allowed him to receive an education at Colegio de San Juan de Letran, although he did not finish his studies due to illness. Despite this, Aguinaldo’s early exposure to education and politics would shape his later revolutionary ideals.
By the 1890s, the Philippines was in the throes of growing unrest under Spanish colonial rule. Social inequality, forced labor, heavy taxation, and abuse by both civil and religious authorities fueled resistance movements, the most notable being the Katipunan, a secret society founded by Andrés Bonifacio to fight for Philippine independence.
Rise in the Revolution
Aguinaldo joined the Katipunan in 1895, adopting the codename “Magdalo.” His faction, also called Magdalo, was one of the most organized and militarily effective branches of the movement, operating mainly in Cavite. He quickly rose through the ranks due to his leadership and strategic acumen.
The revolution formally broke out in August 1896. While Bonifacio was the movement’s founder and Supremo (supreme leader), Aguinaldo’s battlefield successes in Cavite gave him increasing prominence. This set the stage for a power struggle that would define the internal politics of the revolutionary movement.
In 1897, the conflict between the Magdalo and Bonifacio’s Magdiwang faction culminated in the Tejeros Convention. During this meeting, Aguinaldo was elected president of the revolutionary government, while Bonifacio was demoted to a lower position. Disillusioned and angry over what he perceived as electoral fraud and betrayal, Bonifacio attempted to nullify the results. He was arrested by Aguinaldo’s forces, tried for treason, and eventually executed—an act that has cast a long shadow over Aguinaldo’s legacy.
Pact of Biak-na-Bato and Exile
Despite early successes, the revolution struggled against Spanish reinforcements. In late 1897, Aguinaldo negotiated a truce with Spanish authorities known as the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. The agreement promised reforms and monetary compensation in exchange for the revolutionary leaders’ exile. Aguinaldo and others accepted the deal and went to Hong Kong, where they used the funds to purchase arms.
Critics argue that this pact showed Aguinaldo’s willingness to compromise, perhaps prematurely. Others view it as a strategic pause, allowing the revolutionaries to regroup.
Return and Declaration of Independence
In 1898, the geopolitical situation shifted dramatically. The Spanish-American War broke out, and the United States, seeking to dislodge Spain from its colonies, saw the Philippines as a strategic asset. Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines with American support, believing the U.S. would help secure Filipino independence.
On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence from Spain in Kawit, Cavite. The event featured the unfurling of the Philippine flag, the playing of the national anthem, and a formal proclamation of independence. Though symbolic and inspirational, this act lacked international recognition—most notably, from the United States.
First Philippine Republic and the Philippine-American War
On January 23, 1899, Aguinaldo became the first president of the First Philippine Republic, also known as the Malolos Republic, with its constitution ratified in Malolos, Bulacan. It was Asia’s first constitutional democracy, an impressive feat given the tumultuous backdrop.
However, tensions with the United States escalated quickly. Aguinaldo had hoped that the U.S. would honor Filipino aspirations for self-rule. Instead, the U.S. had annexation in mind. The Treaty of Paris in December 1898 ceded the Philippines to the United States for $20 million, without Filipino consent.
On February 4, 1899, fighting broke out between American and Filipino troops in Manila, sparking the Philippine-American War. Aguinaldo led Filipino forces in a prolonged guerrilla war against the better-equipped American military. Despite early resistance, the revolutionaries were pushed back.
In 1901, Aguinaldo was captured in Palanan, Isabela, through a daring ruse by American forces using captured Filipino troops to lure him out. He was forced to swear allegiance to the United States, effectively ending organized Filipino resistance.
Later Life and Political Involvement
After his capture, Aguinaldo withdrew from public life for several years but remained a prominent national figure. In the 1930s, he ran for president in the 1935 elections of the Philippine Commonwealth but lost overwhelmingly to Manuel L. Quezon. His defeat signaled that many Filipinos still remembered—and perhaps resented—his earlier decisions, particularly the execution of Bonifacio and his role in the power struggles of the revolution.
During World War II, Aguinaldo initially supported the Japanese occupation, believing it might lead to independence from the United States. He later distanced himself from the Japanese-sponsored regime. After the war, he was arrested for collaboration but was eventually pardoned.
In his later years, Aguinaldo focused on civic activities and veterans’ affairs. He lobbied for the recognition of Filipino soldiers and pushed for independence, which was finally granted on July 4, 1946. Aguinaldo was present at the ceremonies.
He died on February 6, 1964, at the age of 94. His home in Kawit is now a national shrine.
Legacy and Controversies
Aguinaldo’s legacy remains a subject of debate. On one hand, he is celebrated as a nationalist who declared independence and established the first republic in Asia. He is honored with monuments, a national holiday (Independence Day), and a place in the pantheon of Filipino heroes.
On the other hand, his role in the execution of Andrés Bonifacio and his sometimes-ambiguous wartime decisions, including cooperation with the Japanese, have drawn criticism. Some historians view him as overly pragmatic, or even opportunistic, while others see him as a product of a tumultuous and complex time.
Conclusion
Emilio Aguinaldo was a man of ambition, vision, and contradictions. As the first president of the Philippines and a key figure in its revolutionary struggle, his impact on the nation’s history is undeniable. Yet his legacy is not without controversy. In assessing Aguinaldo, it is important to consider the broader context in which he lived—a period marked by colonial oppression, internal strife, and the shifting sands of global power.
Rather than viewing Aguinaldo as a flawless hero or a villain, it may be more honest to see him as a revolutionary shaped by his era—one who made difficult decisions, achieved significant milestones, and left behind a complex but enduring imprint on Philippine history.
